Although budgetary allocations have increased through the years, the overall share of research and development in India’s GDP has been hovering around 0.7 per cent on an average over the last few years.

The glaciers have sculpted various landforms transforming the geomorphology of earth. These landforms are the result of processes of weathering, erosion and deposition under harsh climatic regimes.

One of the oldest mountains of the subcontinent, the Aravalli play a significant role in arresting the onslaught of the deserts from western Rajasthan and beyond, apart from preserving the rich cultural heritage. Critically, the ranges also recharge the depleting aquifers of the region.

Oceans play a major role in the hydrological cycle, moderate the climate and act as the primary sink for carbon dioxide. The complex bathymetry of ocean beds, with long mountain ranges, mounds, volcanic craters and marine sediments, have been revealed by deep sea exploration.

Antarctic, the cold oceans surrounding it and the greater parts of Arctic are often conceptualised as the 'common heritage of mankind' - most enchanting, picturesque and pristine - sustaining the complex ocean-atmosphere coupled system of our planet and thereby ensuring the sustenance of life itself. While appreciating the need for development, it is argued by environmentalists that the Earth has physical and biological limits and it is of utmost importance that these limits are honoured.

Scrutiny of instrumental data from Antarctic reveals that the Continent has undergone significant changes in the recent decades, with an increase in atmospheric temperature in most parts. The largest annual warming trends are found in the West Antarctic and Antarctic Peninsula in particular. In contrast, the East Antarctic has experienced little warming. However, recent studies reveal that the warming had affected many sites in the coastal East Antarctic. Importantly, the complexity of Antarctic climate is still poorly understood because of the limited periods of observational data.

India led its first scientific expedition to the Antarctic in 1981 and to the Arctic in 2007. India is thus, among the very few nations in the world to operate stations both in the Arctic and the Antarctic.